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    [ 黄忠 译 ]——(2005-11-3) / 已阅45082次

    [21] 见Stewart, ,同前注[1],at1732-56;相反论述可见:Richrd L, Revesz, Federalism and Environmental Regulation:A Public Choice Analysis.115 Harv, L, Rev, 553, 567(2001)(提出“对于集中化的企业利益者来讲,附加资源使其要比分散的消费者和环保利益者要更易参与到更多的程序中去。”)。
    [22] 参见:Motor Vehicle Mfrs, Ass’n v, State Farm Mut. Life Ins.Co, 463U.S.29, 42-43(1983)(认为司法审查要确保行政决定是基于所有相关数据之上且能为合理的解释所支持的);United States v.N.S.Food Prods. Corp, 568 F.2b 240, 252(2b Cir,1977)(认为行政决定的作出须是包括前提信息的开示,大量建议的回应和对其行为的合理说明三项工作。); Scenic Hudson Pres, Conference v.Fed. Power Comm’n,354F.2b608, 620-21(2b Cir,1965)(提出由于法院不能用裁判代替行政决定,因而司法审查的义务就旨在考量在行政决定作出过程中的所有信息。)。
    [23] 见Stewart, 同前注[1], at 1711-90; 又见Breyer 等, 同前注[16], at26-30。
    [24] Exec, Order No.12, 291, 3 C.F.R, 127(1982), reprinted in 5U.S.C.§601(1988).该命令已被克林顿总统所签发的Exec. Order No.12, 866, 3 C.F.R. 638(1994), reprinted in 5 U.S.C.&601(2000)所取代。虽然,它对里根总统的命令在程序和实体上作了一定程度的修正,但其基本制度仍未改变。
    [25] 见James F. Blumstin, Regulatory Review by the Executive Office of the President: An Overview and Policy Analysis of Current Issues, 51 Duke L.J.851-59 (2001)(解释了12291号令作出的背景原因);Richard H. Pildes & Cass R. Sunstein. Reinventing the Regulatory State, 62 U.Chi.L.Rev.1, 3(1995)(也对12291号作出的背景作了解释);与主张在这一问题及其它相关问题上的总统授权观点相左的论述试比较Cynthia R, Fiorina, Undoing the New Deal Through the New Presidentialism.22 Harv, J.L. & Pub. Pol’y227(1998)(批评正在发现的总统主义有着天然的解除控制和不合目的的倾向);与Elena Kagan, Presidential Administration, 114 Harv. L.Rev.2245(2001)(为克林顿总统运用法规来支持其政策和政治事务的做法作了辩护)。
    [26] 42 U.S.C.&1983(2000) (将对公民权的剥夺作为一个提起诉讼的理由)。
    [27] 见Bivens v.Six Unknown Named Agents of Fed.Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S.388.391-92(1971)(裁定联邦官员违反宪法第四条之规定可以作为公民提起诉讼的理由)。
    [28] Peter L. Strauss. From Expertise to Polittes: The Transformation of American Rulemaking, 31 Wake Forest L.Rev.745, 755-56,760(1996)。
    [29] 同上, at767。
    [30] 见 Richard B. Stewart, A New Generation of Environmental Regulation?, 29 Cap.U.L.Rev,21,38-54(2001)。
    [31] 作为对行政法的利益集团代表模式的各种限制的讨论,可参见:Jim Rossi, Participation Run Amok: The Costs of Mass Participation for Deliberative Agency Decisionmaking, 92 Nw.U.L.Rev.173, 236-41(1997)(警告说越广泛的参加会使得行政机关倾向于同冒失的行为达成政治协妥从而在一定程度上削弱行政机关决定的作出);又见 Mark Seidenfeld, Empowering Stakeholders: Limits on Collaboration as the Basis for Flexible Regulation,41 Wm, &Mary L.Rev.411,427-45(2000)(作者认为利益集团的内在结构和功能使得其不能参与到协作型的管理计划中去);又见Stewart, ,同前注[1], at1762-70(主要讨论哪些利益需要去代表以及产生此类代表的方式问题)。
    [32] 通常可参见:William Funk, Bargaining Toward the New Millennium: Regulatory Negotiation and the Subversion of the Public Interest,46 Duke L.J.1351(1997)(因会使行政机关削弱对公共利益的考虑而对协商性法规制定作了批评);William Funk, When Smoke Gets in Your Eyes: Regulatory Negotiation and the Public Interest-EPA’s Woodstove Standards, 18 Emvtl. L.55(1987)(强调说协商性法规制定模式只能会使行政机关沦为帮助利益相关人达成合意的促进者,且会引起行政机关超越法定权限行为的危险。);但也有相反的观点,如Philip J. Harter, Assessing the Assessors: The Actual Performance of Negotiated Rulemaking. 9 N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J.32(2002)(简述了行政协商的优点)。
    [33] 见Lewis A. Kornhauser, On Justifying Cost-Benefit Analysis. 29 J. Legal Stud. 1037, 1054(2000);但也有相反的观点,见Exec. Order No. 12,866, 3 C.F.R. 638(1994), reprinted in 5 U.S.C. § 601 (2000)(旨在言明成本效益分析法的不足)。
    [34] 见Margret Catde, Can Bambi Ride Herd over Godzilla? The Role of Esecutive Oversight in EPA’s Rulemaking for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, 36 Nat. Resources J. 643, 675-76 & n.248(1996)(鉴于国会的核废物政策,作者认为OMB对EPA的监管不仅没能澄清反而模糊了其在政治上所负的说明责任。);又见Erik D. Olson, The Quiet Shift of Power: Office of Management & Budget Supervision of Envi-Resources L.1, 28-35, 55-57(1984)(认为OMB对EPA法规的审查既没能增进行政机关的说明义务,也没能促进强有力的分析。)。.
    [35] 通常可参考:Ian Ayres & John Brathwaite. Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate (1992);以及Stewart, 同前注[30] at 27-38。
    [36] Mark Seidenfeld, Demystifying Deossification; Rethinking Recent Proposals to Modify Judicial Review of Notice and Comment Rulemaking, 75 Tex. L. Rev. 483, 483-84(1997)(由于不必要的分析障碍,行政法上旨在扩大公众参与的新发展已不经意地阻碍了法规的制定。)。
    [37] 见Stewart, 同前注[30], at 27-38。
    [38] 见 Regulatory Encounters: Multinational Corporations and American Adversary Legalism 404-05(Robert A. Kagan & Lee Axelrad eds., 2000); Richard B. Stewart, Recon-stitutive Law, 46 Md. L. Rev. 86, 103-04(1986)。
    [39] Jody Freeman, Collaborative Governance in the Administrative State, 45 UCLA L. Rev.1, 5, 18-19(1997) (提出对抗性的代表程序会导致法规制定的延缓、僵化和缺乏创新性。)。
    [40] 见 Seidenfeld, 同前注[36], at 483 ( “僵化”是指行政机关在采用新法规之前由于须首先清除分析上的障碍,从而使得管理方案缺乏效率);又见Thomas O. McGarity, Some Thoughts on “Deossifying” the Rulemaking Process, 41 Duke L.J. 1385, 1387-1436(1992)(概述了“僵化”的原因和后果);Richard J. Pierce, Jr., Seven Ways to Deossify Agency Rulemaking, 47 Admin. L. Rev. 59, 60-66(1995) (同样简述了“僵化”的原因和后果)。
    [41] 有关风险评估和效果分析在多大程度上才是不合算的,以及如何才能有效推迟行政决定的作出的讨论。可参见:Celia Campbell-Mohn & John S. Applegate, Learning from NEPA: Guidelines for Responsible Risk Legislation, 23 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 93, 126-27(1999); 以及Thomas O. McGarity, The Espanded Debate over the Future of the Regulatory State, 63 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1463, 1523(1996)。
    [42] 见Robert A. Anthony, Interpretive Rules, Policy Statements, Guidances, Manuals, and the Like-Should Federal Agencies Use Them to Bind the Public?, 41 Duke L.J.1311, 1332-55 (1992)(提供了一些行政机关运用非立法性政策文件来约束公众的例子);又见Lars Noah, Scientific “Republicanism”: Espert peer Review and the Quest for Regulatory Deliberation, 49 Emory L.J. 1033, 1068-69 & n.161(2000)(为防止改革的僵化,行政机关可能会选择不太正式的机制。)。
    [43] 一般可参见Freeman,同前注[39](认为行政法的联合管理模式可以代替利益代表模式);又见Georgette C. Poindexter, Addressing Morality in Urban Brownfield Redevelopment: Using Stake-holder Theory to Craft Legal Process, 15 Va. Envtl. L.J. 37(1995)(作者运用利益相关人理论的规范原则来提出所有相关选民的要求,并在允许经济增长的同时促进平等);还可见Seidenfeld ,同前注[39] at414-26(为促进协作性管理方式而完善了利益相关人理论);以及Stewart, 同前注[30], at 60-94(简述了合同和准合同性质的行政管理方案的使用)。
    [44] 见 Neil Gunningham & Peter Grabonsky, Smart Regulation: Designing Environ-mental Policy 123-29 (1998)。
    [45] 有关这一方式之优点的论述,可比较Cary Coglianese, Assessing Consensus: The Promise and Performance of Negotiated Rulemaking, 46 Duke L.J. 1255 (1997)(讨论了因协商性法规制定方法而致的审查和裁决中的缺陷);与Philip J. Harter, Negotiating Regulations: A Cure for Malaise, 71 Geo. L.J. 1(1982)(支持协商性法规制定方式的使用)。
    [46] 通常可以参见 Notice, Medicare and Medicaid Programs Health Care Financing Research and Demonstration Cooperative Agreements and Grants for Fiscal Year 1991, 56 Fed. Reg. 26, 120 (June 6, 1991)。
    [47] Pub. L. No. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884 (1973) (codified as amended at 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544 (2000)). See generally Notice, Medicare and Medicaid Programs Health Care Financing Research and Demonstration Cooperative Agreements and Grants for Fiscal Year 1991, 56 Fed. Reg. 26,120 (June 6, 1991)。
    [48] 一般可以参见Bradley C. Karkkainen, Collaborative Ecosystem Governance: Scale, Complexity, and Dynamism, 21 Va. Envtl. L.J. 189 (2002)(介绍了正在出现的“协作生态系统管理”模式,该模式强调要通过广泛的公——私合作、协作和信息共享来为本土生态问题设计一个解决之道);又见Albert C. Lin, Participants’ Experiences with Habitat Conservation Plans and Suggestions for Streamlining the Process, 23 Ecology L.Q. 369, 379 & n.49 (1996)(简述了在《濒临灭绝物种法》中的协商程序)。
    [49] 一般可见Michael C. Dorf & Charles F. Sabel, A Constitution of Democratic Experimentalism, 98 Colum. L. Rev. 267, 283 (1998)(针对现代生活的情况提出了民主实验主义(democratic experimentalism)的管理模式)。
    [50] Joshua Cohen & Charles F. Sabel, Sovereignty and Solidarity: EU and US, in Governing Work and Welfare in a New Economy: European and American Experiments 691, 694-95 (Jonathan Zeitlin与David Trubeck主编,2003年即将出版) [hereinafter Governing Work], 可浏览 http: //web. mit. edu/ polisci/ research/ cohen/ sovereignty and_ solidarity_EU_ _ and_US. pdf.;有关协作公开方法(OMC)的描述,可参见:Caroline de la Porte & Philippe Pochet, Introduction, in Building Social Europe Through the Open Method of Co-ordination 11, 13-16 (Caroline de la Porte与Philippe Pochet主编,2002年出版);有关OMC在就业政策上的运用的评估可参阅:Catherine Barnard & Simon Deakin, “Negative” and “Positive” Harmonization of Labor Law in the European Union, 8 Colum. J. Eur. L. 389, 411-12 (2002); David M. Trubek & James Mosher, New Governance, EU Employment Policy, and the European Social Model, in Governing Work, 同前,at 95可浏览http: // www. jeanmonnetprogram. org/ papers/ 01/ 011501. html。
    [51] Stewart, 同前注[30], at 138-39。
    [52] 见 Bradley C. Karkkainen, Information as Environmental Regulation; TRI and Performance Benchmarking, Precursor to a New Paradigm?, 89 Geo. L.J. 257, 259-63 (2001) (有毒物质排放目录(TRI)成功地授权公司自行确立参考标准和自我监管,并且有效促进了环境的依法治理。)。
    [53] 一般可参见William M. Sage, Regulating Through Information: Disclosure Laws and American Health Care, 99 Colum. L. Rev. 1701(1999)(分析了规范医疗行业的强制公开法)。
    [54] Stewart,同前注[30],at 134-36, 143-45。
    [55] 见Alan S. Miller, Energy Policy from Nixon to Clinton: From Grand Provider to Market Facilitator, 25 Envtl. L. 715, 728 n.111(1995) (highlighting Department of Energy Climate Challenge programs and EPA Energy Star and Green Lights programs)。
    [56] .Stewart, 同前注[30] at 127-34. (“反身环保法”旨在在业界建立自我反醒的程序以鼓励有关减少环境污染的创新行为、相关批评和对此问题的持续思考);Gunther Teubner, Substantive and Reflexive Elements in Modern Law, 17 Law & Soc’y Rev. 239 (1983)(对“反身法”与其它环保法理论作了比较)。
    [57] 一般可参见Richard B. Stewart, Economic Incentives for Environmental Protection: Opportunities and Obstacles, in Environmental Law, the Economy and Sustainable Development: The United States, the European Union and the International Community 171 (Richard L. Revesz, Philippe Sands 与Richard B. Stewart主编 2000) [此后简称Revesz, Sands & Stewart](分析了经济激励机制在国际、国内方面的运用。)。.
    [58].Stewart, 同前注[38] , at 88-89。
    [59] Stewart, 同前注[57] ,at 180-84, 212-14。
    [60] Alfred C. Aman, Jr., The Limits of Globalization and the Future of Administrative Law: From Government to Governance, 8 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 379, 399 (2001)(由于行政法的变革方法,公和私的界限已变得日益模糊。)。
    [61] 见Dorf与 Sabel, 同前注[49], at 314-23(概括了“民主试验主义”的管理模式)。
    [62] 见 Aman, 同前注[60], at 396 (“集中于国内外角色转换的行政法方法以及公或私的合作关系都应主要满足透明和参与的需要”);又见Alfred C. Aman, Jr., Proposals for Reforming the Administrative Procedure Act: Globalization, Democracy and the Furtherance of a Global Public Interest, 6 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 397, 415-17 (1999)(建议将《行政程序法》和《信息自由法》的规定应用于私人部门以代替政府实体的管理)。
    [63] 见 Dorf 和 Sabel, 同前注[49] , at 345-48 (强调了由行政机关制定基准的重要性)。.
    [64] 见 Eckard Rehbinder, Market-Based Incentives for Environmental Protection, in Revesz, Sands & Stewart, supra note 57, at 245, 248-49 (提倡应对广义经济激励机制的个别效果进行司法审查)。.
    [65] 参看Aman,同前注[60] at 379-80(对行政管理从以国家为中心的命令控制模式到市场模式的转变而导致市场激励机制和公私合作的产生进行了评述)。但Aman提出管理的市场模式已越发变得平凡(Commonplace)的原因,“并非是由于将行政权力转让给私人部门这一哲理性决定的结果,似乎这是公与私之间的一场不分胜负的比赛(a zero-sum game between ‘the public’ and ‘the private.’)。而是因为市场和私人部门没有专横的缺点、可以不受地区限制的影响来处理问题,因而其地位也就越发突出了。”同上at 391。
    [66] 见 Bruce A. Ackerman和 Richard B. Stewart, Reforming Environmental Law, 37 Stan. L. Rev. 1333, 1356-57 (1985)(认为基于恰当激励机制上的行政决定可能引发公众关于环境二难困境和议会政策的讨论)。对这一主张的批评可参见:Lisa Heinzerling, Selling Pollution, Forcing Democracy, 14 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 300, 311-18 (1995)。
    [67] 见Stephen G. Breyer, Breaking the Vicious Circle: Toward Effective Risk Regulation (1993);又见Edward W. Warren & Gary E. Marchant, “More Good than Harm”: A First Principle for Environmental Agencies and Reviewing Courts, 20 Ecology L.Q. 379, 438-39 (1993) (对促进和扩张执行机构的法规监管进行了讨论)。
    [68] 有关水平网络管理概念的介绍可参见:Ann-Marie Slaughter, The Accountability of Government Networks, 8 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 347 (2001)(概述了跨国政府管理网络和责任的问题);另外也可参阅:Peter M. Haas, Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination, 46 Int’l Org. 1 (1992)(考察了国际政策协调对决定作出程序的影响)。
    [69] 见 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, Sept. 16, 1987, art. 2, 26 I.L.M. 1550 (1989年1月1日生效); Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of the Parties, 3d Sess., Agenda Item 5, U.N. Doc. No. FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1 (1997), 37 I.L.M. 32 (1998)可浏览 http://unfccc. Int/ resource/docs/cop3/107a01.htm。
    [70] 见Eleanor D. Kinney, The Emerging Field of International Administrative Law: Its Content and Potential, 54 Admin. L. Rev. 415, 425-32 (2002) (概述了当地方和联邦政府将行政权转交给国际管理组织时所面临的挑战)。.

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    论文分类

    A 法学理论

    C 国家法、宪法

    E 行政法

    F 刑法

    H 民法

    I 商法

    J 经济法

    N 诉讼法

    S 司法制度

    T 国际法


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