• 法律图书馆

  • 新法规速递

  • 美国宪法上的集会自由权

    [ 杨日旭 ]——(2001-8-16) / 已阅41394次

    ① 总统为三军统帅,军事不受政治干涉,亦不应与政治竞选活动或党派活动相纪缠不清(“offical military activities free from entanglement with partisan political campaign of any kind.”)

    ② 军事基地与一般平民活动场所有别。“军事基地旨在训练士兵而非提供政治讨论场所”(“The business of military installation like Fort Dix is to train soldiers, not to provide a public forum for politics”);

    ③ “施医生及其它人并无一般化的宪法权利在Fort Dix基地发表政治演说或散发竞选文件。”(Dr. Spock and others“had no generalized constitutional right to make political speeches or distribute leaflets at Fort Dix”)

    又根据Parker v. Levy, 1974一案,联邦最高法院特别强调,李维(Howard Levy)上尉反对越战,煸动黑人拒服兵役参加作战,经军事法庭依据统一军法法典(Uniform code of Military Justice判刑,系基于军人与平民不同,故统一军法法典第一三三及一三四两条并无违宪之处。军人虽亦享有言论、宗教及集会自由,但在行使之程度上自亦不同。)

    (6)在大街交通要道之示威Cox v. Louisiana, No. 24, 1965:一九六一年,B. Elton Cox故师率领两千名南方大学Southern University学生在路易西安那州之Baton Rouge城市之市中心区游行抗议种族歧视,阴碍交通,经警方逮捕移送法院,以两项罪名起诉:①扰乱社会公共秩序(disturbing the peace under Louisiana’s breach of the peace statute)。被告Cox牧师不服抗告,再经上诉,终由联邦最高法院裁决认为两项罪名均不能成立。以全票批驳地方法院对扰乱社会安宁妨害公共秩序所定之罪刑,又以七对二票推翻阴碍交通之罪刑判决。主要理由为该州有关管制示威游行之法规毕予执法官员以“无羁裁量权”,而且规定之条文太过含混笼统,不易适从,使被告之言论自由及集会自由遭到危害。

    尽管Cox获得司法救济,无罪开释,但负责主稿判决之书之自由派大法官高柏格(Justice Goldberg)在本案中对以示威游行作为街头对抗政治(Street confrontation potitics)之范围及限制则作以上权重要之解释:

    ①从这些判例中可以看出若干明显而清楚之原则,言论及结社自由虽为我国民主社会之基本原则,但还不能说每一个人随时随地地对任何社团都可以发表其意见和信仰(“From these decisions certain clear principles emerge. The rights of free speech and assembly, while fundamental in our democratic society, still do not mean that every one with opinions or beliefs to express may address a group at any place and any time.”)

    ②“宪法上所保障这自由权即隐摄着一个维持公共秩序的确有组织的社会之存在,如果没有它的存在,自由本身即会在过激的无政治状态中丧失”(“The constitutional guarantee of liberty implies the existence of an organized society maintaining public order, without which liberty itself would be lost in the excesses of anarchy.”)

    ③“控制街道交通很清楚的是政府维护必要秩序责任的题例,任何人以不遵守众所周知之红绿灯之交通规则作为社会抗议的手段则是不合理的(“The control of travel on the streets is a clear example of governmental responsibility to insure this necessary order One would not be justified in ignoring the familiar red light becausr this was thought to be a means of social protest.”)”

    ④“任何人亦不得违反交通规则,坚持于交通尖锋时间在时报广场上举街头集会,作为行使其言论自由或集会自由的方式。政府当局有义务及责任保持大街道路之交通畅行无阻。”(“Not could one, contrary to traffic regulations, insist upon a street meeting in the middle of Times Square at the rush hour as a form of freedom of speech or assembly. Governmental authorities have the duty and responsibility to keep their streets open and available for movement.”)

    ⑤“游行示威群众不得坚持有权封闭某条街道及进出公私场所之通路,亦不得禁止任何拒听说教之行人这通行”。(“A group of demonstrators could not insist upon the rright to cordon off a street, or entrance to a public or private building, and allow no one to pass who did not agree to listen to their exhortations.”)

    由以上判例则知,在美国大街游行示威的集会自由权并非一绝对的权利。

    (7)在法院前之示威游行Cox v. Louisiana, 1965, No. 49:本案之第三个争议主题为被告Cox在法院“附近”(near)游行是否违法而应加惩处。路易西安那州法律明文规定“任何人在法院或法院附近举牌抗议或游行示威,意图干涉、阴挠、妨害司法行政,或意图影响法官、陪审员、证人及司法官员、执行职务,均应处五千元以上罚金或一年以下之临禁,或两罚并处。”(“Whoever, with the intent of interfering with, obstructing, or impeding the administration of justice, or with the intent of influencing any judge, juror, witness, or court officers, in the discharge of his duty pickets or parades in or near a building housing a court of the State of Louisiana shall be fined not more than five thousand dollars or imprisoned not more than one year, or both.”)。根据此一法律,地方法院以被告违法在法院对街一○一尺“附近”示威游行,抗拒警方要求群众解散之命令,因而将之判刑。被告不服,认为地方法院及州法院均侵犯其在宪法上之言论及集会自由权,遂经次上诉。最后联邦最高法院裁决该州最高法官判罪所据之理由不足,遂宜告原判不能成立,被告终因无罪而开释。联邦最高法院所持之理由如下:

    ① 该州禁止在法官“附近”游行示威之规定虽无不妥但“附近”词之解释仍嫌笼统(indefinite),含混(vague),且毕予警官以“无羁裁量权”(unfrttered discretion)任加解释;

    ② 法规既明文禁止在法院“附近”游行,故凡在法院“附近”游行理应均属违法,但警方负责高级官员既已指定群众在法院对街一○一尺之场地“可以游行”,则知警官已将“附近”一词解释为一○一尺合法之场地,可以游行,却在事后出尔反尔,变更解释,下令群众解散,显系警官任意裁量,致使示威者无所适从。基于此,联邦最高级法院认为州最高法院之判决不能成立。此虽系咬文嚼字,但却表示“依法主治”之精神。

    因为本案系以此数权为接近之五对四票裁决,而且少数派之四名大法官均强烈反对,认为此种裁决易滋误解,外界或以为联邦最高法院批准任何人得在法院内外或附近游行示威。事实上,该院大法官无论在本案中之立场如何,均同意为维护司法审判独立及法院尊严,向不容任何人或团体在法院聚众集会,以浒行示威方式威胁、干涉或影响法院之司法程序。为澄清此一判例可能造成之误会,大法官高柏格在判决主文中迅即指出此一重要附加之说明:

    ① 路易西安那州 禁止在法院及附近示威游行之法规无论其在文字及内容均无不妥且符合一九四九年九月廿三日在美国司法会议“禁止在法院示威抗议之立法议案特别委员会”所提之报告,该项报告一致赞成国会应制订立法禁止在法院抗议示威。一九五○年国会通过有关联邦司法制度之制度(64 Stat. 1081, 18 U. S.C. § 1507, 1958 ed.)即禁止在法院示威抗议。该州法律即依据此一联邦立法而制订此一州法,故理无不合;

    ② 同理,各州之司法制度亦应禁止在法院之示威抗议以免受外界之压力。因为本院誓言支持法治政府而非人政府(“We are committed to a government of law and not a government of men”);

    ③ “司法程序之任何阶段不应受暴民干涉。暴民干涉法律正为适法程序之反。”(“There is no room at any stage of judicial proceedings for such intervention; mob law is the very antithesis of due process”);

    ④ 本院认为“某种与言论混合之行为即得加以规限及禁止”(……that certain forms of conduct mixed with speech may be regulated or prohibited.),换言之,联邦最高法院在本案中反复指出“言论自由如与某种行为混合即不为宪法之必然保护”(“……that free speech is intermingled with such conduct does not bring with it constitutiilnal protection.”)在法院附近,游行非纯言论(pure speech),即系附加行动,故应受法律规限;

    ⑤ 本院虽将州最高法院之原判批驳,但并“非谓警察对最初系和平而后变为暴乱之集会不得予以制止”。(“Of course, this does not mean that the police cannot call a halt to a meeting which though originally peaceful, becomes violent.”)再者,“本院亦非指凡经谨审拟订及执行之法律命令均不得对集会设定合理之时间限制”(“Nor does it mean that, under properly drafted and administered statutes and ordinances, the authorities cannot set reasonable time limits for assemblies.”)而“本院仅认为本案在目前情况下,上诉人之罪状未能基于警方之解散令而成立”(We merely hold that, under circumstances such as those present in this case, appellant’s conviction cannot be sustained on the basis of the dispersa order.);

    ⑥ “本院在本案及上案(No.24)所作有关在法院及其附近举行示威行动之裁决,概不得解释为对任何形式及示威之动乱行为加以认可,无论此种示威游行如何和平,动机如何可嘉,如其与旨在促进法治与秩序,保护社会免于动乱,管制交通规则,维护公私财产之合法利益,保障司法行政以及其他政府主要公务职责之严谨法律相抵触则本院即不认可。”(“Nothing we have said here or in No. 24, ante, is to be interpreted as sanctioning riotous conduct in any form or demonstrations, however peaceful or commendable their notives, which conflict with properly drawn statutes and ordinances designed to promtote law and order, protect the community against disorder, regulate traffic, safeguard legitimate interests in private and public property, or protect the adminlstration of justice and other essential gorernmental functions.”)。

    最后,联邦最高法院对本案曾作一项肯定结论说,“自由只有在一个卫护秩序的法律制度之下始可行使。”(“Liberty can only be exercised in a system of law which safeguards order.”)

    2、有关示威游行之方式:美国各种政治及社会团体为争取其本身利益而采取各种方式以行动表示抗议:

    (1)以手段分则有和平抗议及激烈抗议:前者为室内或街头之和平合法集会及示威抗议游行,后者如采取过激之暴力违法行动,如捣毁公私财物,破坏交通秩序,加暴他人等等。前者多为法律所允许之合法行动,后者则为违法之行动;

    总共5页  [1] [2] [3] 4 [5]

    上一页    下一页

    ==========================================

    免责声明:
    声明:本论文由《法律图书馆》网站收藏,
    仅供学术研究参考使用,
    版权为原作者所有,未经作者同意,不得转载。

    ==========================================

    论文分类

    A 法学理论

    C 国家法、宪法

    E 行政法

    F 刑法

    H 民法

    I 商法

    J 经济法

    N 诉讼法

    S 司法制度

    T 国际法


    Copyright © 1999-2021 法律图书馆

    .

    .